The plague doctor's costume is first mentioned by Charles de L'Orme, physician to King Louis XIII of France, who, writing about the 1619 plague outbreak in Paris, developed a costume made of Moroccan goat leather that included boots, breeches, a long coat, hat and gloves imitating a soldier's canvas robe from neck to ankle. In this satirical work, Fürst describes how doctors do nothing but terrorise people and take money from the dead and dying. After De Lorme, the German engraver Gerhart Altzenbach published a famous illustration in 1656 on which the publisher Paulus Fürst based his iconic Dr Schnabel von Romm. The cane was also used to keep people away and to undress without touching the victims of the plague.Īccording to Michel Tibayrenc's Encyclopaedia of Infectious Diseases, the iconic plague doctor was first mentioned in the written writings of Charles de Lorme, the royal physician then in the service of King Louis XIII of France, during the outbreak of the plague in Paris in 1619. Wide-brimmed leather hats indicated their profession, and they used wooden canes to point out areas that needed attention and to examine patients without touching them. The doctors believed that these herbs could combat the 'stench' of the plague and prevent them from becoming infected. the purpose of the mask was to prevent the foul odour, known as miasma, which was thought to be the main cause of the disease. The beak could hold dried flowers, herbs, camphor or vinegar sponges, as well as juniper berries, ambergris, cloves, laudanum, myrrh and storax. The mask has two small nostrils and is a breathing apparatus containing aromatic substances. This advice varied from patient to patient and, after the Middle Ages, the nature of the relationship between doctor and patient was governed by an increasingly complex code of ethics.Ī typical costume consists of an ankle-length coat and a beak mask, usually filled with a sweet or strongly scented substance (usually lavender), as well as gloves, boots, a wide-brimmed hat and an outer garment costume.Ī typical mask has glass openings for the eyes and a curved beak, shaped like a bird's beak, with straps to hold the beak in front of the doctor's nose. Plague doctors became witnesses to countless wills during plague epidemics and advised their patients on their conduct before death. The plague doctor's main task, in addition to treating people suffering from the plague, was to compile public records of plague deaths.
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There are four main theories in sociology: Structural-functional theory - This theory is based on the idea that society is a large system that is dependent on its individual parts working together. Symbolic-Interaction theory posits that everyday interactions and individual experiences with other people and groups create the motivations for behavior and the manner in which society is constructed. Conflict theory explains social behavior in terms of macro level concepts but it can be viewed at a micro level also when looking at behavior. This class conflict also inspires people to act in certain ways towards one another such as stratifying groups in order to maintain control of resources. For example, a lack of resources such as oil creates class differences due to the fact that the class that controls the oil will control more wealth. Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. In contrast to structural functionalism, conflict theory explains society in terms of economic factors such as scarcity of resources. According to functionalism, society is heading toward an equilibrium. It examines the necessary structures that make up a society and how each part helps to keep the society stable. social class maintains a division of labor that is needed to make society operate properly. Functionalism is a system of thinking based on the ideas of Emile Durkheim that looks at society from a large scale perspective. Within this framework, one can explain concepts such as social class in terms of their function i.e. Society operates in an orderly and stable manner at a macro level. Structural functionalism is a concept founded in the idea that society attempts to create stability and order. Each of these theories explains social interaction from a different viewpoints and despite almost contradictory differences in explanation, each theory provides a logical assumption for the manner for the underlying motivations that causes society's functions either at the macro, micro, or both levels. The major theoretical perspectives in sociology include Structural Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Symbolic Interaction Theory. It is aimed at those who want to paint and draw rather than edit photos or create collages. Its appeal lies in the fact that it takes up little space, it is easy to learn how to use, and it is fast and smooth with no lagging. PaintTool SAI has enough features for amateur and professional artists to create digital artworks. Other alternatives worthy of mention are GIMP and Paint.NET. 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But if Boeing does more research privately, the burden of cost goes to the smaller companies and soon NASA may cancel projects due to no one using/affording the ideas. Pretty soon, those large companies become like customers and to satisfy them, NASA would have to cater to them. in which there a so few companies big enough to really use those ideas, in terms of investing in those ideas. Boeing does their own airfoil research and they have patented some of the airfoils they have developed. Their aim has been to demonstrate a level of technology that other people can either use or improve upon. I'd like it if someone could verify that story, it's been a few years. IIRC, the air didn't circulate properly underneth a critical portion of the wing. This was primarily due to not having the Reynold's number high enough. I agree! When I was in wind tunnel lab, our professor told us a story that Boeing was embarrased to find out that their 777 in flight had a 0.01 Mach increase in cruise compared to CFD solutions. Not true! While there was a lot of CFD work done on the 777, it also was heavily wind tunnel tested Risk reduction is everything in the development of an airliner and the wind tunnel serves as a risk reduction tool. This testing was done in the Boeing Transonic Wind Tunnel (BTWT), the NASA Ames 11' Unitary tunnel, the NASA Langley National Transonic Facility (NTF) and the RAE Pressure Tunnel. Not true! While there was a lot of CFD work done on the 777, it also was heavily wind tunnel tested. And that's if your computer is big enough and fast enough to create the massive grids and do all the calculations. These days, CFD predictions are getting better than wind tunnel tests for cruise, at least. The B777 never went near a wind tunnel, AFAIK. The wing of the 707 uses NACA 6-series airfoils, with modified camber lines. The NACA 64A010 is very common in such applications. Now, any large commercial aircraft wing is swept, tapered and twisted so a particular section across the whole span is just not suitable, or efficient.Īctually, the NACA 6-series airfoils were found to work very well on swept wings and thus were used on many swept wing aircraft. NACA airfoil sections were great when aircraft had unswept constant chord wings and it made it easier to predict behaviour. I guess I have to wait to Senior year before my courses start teaching me the modern stuff.or is it true what they say.that the stuff you learn in college is outdated anyway? Oh well, the degree and the insight gained will get me in.I'll learn more as I go along.īut what to do with my kick ass MATLAB script, lol! (Let's just hope in that case it really doesn't turn out to just be maynaise left in the sun!) I guess now it'd be a stretch to ask if the zero-lift angle of attack and lift curve slopes for mordern wings are available anywhere as I suppose companies will be a bit more secretive a la "secret sauce". I suppose the term airfoil will now be more educational than design oriented since the concept at least helps in aeronautical instruction. So is it fair to say that the NACA airfoils will now collect dust? This is pretty interesting to me, as my sophomore Aero Design class spent a portion of time on 2-D aerodynamics involving airfoils. The old days of going into the wind tunnel with a half-dozen or more candidate wing designs are gone. Transport aircraft wings are designed using CFD and wind tunnel tests are later performed to confirm the predictions. 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